"A Book of Revelations" Press Release

I wrote this press release for Integrity/Washington.

FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE

June 12, 1994

For more information, contact:
John C. Bradley, Co-convener
REDACTED (work)
REDACTED (home)

WASHINGTON, D.C.--Integrity/Washington announced this week that it was donating a gay Christian book to all Fairfax County Public Libraries. The purpose of the donation is to counter the libraries' recent purchase of anti-gay titles, which was forced by radical fundamentalists.

"Religious extremists spread the myth that it is impossible to be both a dedicated Christian and gay or lesbian," said John Bradley, the co-convener of the group. "But the truth is that there are millions of gay and lesbian people who faithfully worship Christ and serve the church. Sadly, many gay and lesbian Christians have been forced by homophobes to make a choice between their spirituality and sexuality. This has caused incredible anguish. We want all lesbian and gay Christians who are struggling to integrate these two parts of themselves, especially young people, to know that they can joyfully love God and someone of the same sex. We were born gay by the grace of God and we are unconditionally loved by the One who made us."

The publication being donated by Integrity is "A Book of Revelations," a collection of 52 autobiographies of gay and lesbian Episcopalians. The donation is being made as part of a book drive sponsored by the Fairfax Lesbian and Gay Citizens Association (FLGCA). FLGCA is continuing to accept donations of pro-gay books of all types through the month of June. For more information, contact Tracey L. Kennedy, the coordinator of the book drive, at REDACTED.

Integrity/Washington is a group of local lesbian and gay Episcopalians. They describe their mission as: 1) helping gay and lesbian people integrate their spirituality and sexuality, 2) educating the larger church about lesbian and gay people, and 3) sharing the love of Christ with the whole gay and lesbian community. Integrity meets on the second and fourth Friday nights of each month, 7:30 p.m., at St. Thomas' Parish, 1772 Church Street, near Dupont Circle.

Master's Comprehensive Examination: Dr. Wager's Question

New designers of CAI always want to know how much learner interaction should be put into the program. Your task is to write a set of guidelines that will help them in deciding why, where, when and how learner interaction can be effectively used. In each case state the principle to be followed, give an explicit example of what the interaction would look like, and any special advice or cautions that you would like to make.

Why Use Interactivity?

Heinich, Molenda, and Russell (1989) describe instructional interactivity as a requirement for some level of physical activity from a user, which in some way alters the sequence of presentation. In computer-based instruction (CBI), the computer solicits input by visual and auditory cues and the learner responds by using an input device (keyboard, mouse, joystick, etc.). In response, the computer changes the sequence of the lesson. A simple example is the computer displaying, "What is your name?" on the screen, the student typing "John," and the computer replying "I'm glad to meet you, John!"

Justification for use of interactivity in CBI can be found in both behavioral learning and information-processing theories.

Hannafin and Peck (1988) describe four behavioral learning principles which apply to interactivity--contiguity, repetition, feedback & reinforcement, and prompting & fading. The principle of contiguity implies that the stimulus to which the learner is to respond must be presented in time with the desired response. In order for learning to occur, the response must immediately follow the stimulus. The shorter the period of time between a stimulus and a response, the more likely the two will be paired. For example, if the computer teaches the student how to divide two fractions, the student should be required to immediately demonstrate this skill.

In order to improve learning and retention, a stimulus and response must be practiced. This strengthens the bond between the stimulus and response. Using the example above, the student might be given several pairs of fractions to divide.

A learner should be given information on the appropriateness of a response. Feedback tells the learner if she was right or wrong. If, as a result of the feedback, the student's response is more or less likely to occur, then reinforcement has taken place. Again using the fractional division example, the computer might praise the student for answering correctly or the computer might remediate the student for answering incorrectly.

Shaping is the process of reinforcing successive approximations of a desired response. As part of this process, prompting is the provision of several stimulus cues to elicit a desired behavior. Once the desired behavior is learned under cued conditions, extraneous stimuli are faded until the response is elicited under the desired conditions. For example, to teach numbers, the computer might present a graphic that illustrates three apples and the numeral "3." The student would come to pair the number of apples with the appropriate numeral. After the student has demonstrated that she has learned the value of the number, the apple illustration is discontinued.

Gagné describes nine events of instruction that are based on information processing theory. Four of these--gaining attention, eliciting performance, providing feedback, and assessing performance--are directly related to interactivity.

Interactivity can gain attention. Learning cannot occur unless the attention of the learner is captured and maintained. Interactivity can elicit performance. Once new information has been provided to a learner, an opportunity must be given to use the new knowledge (practice). Interactivity can provide feedback. As a result of the student's practice behavior, feedback is given regarding the rightness or the wrongness of the response. Right responses are positively reinforced and wrong responses are remediated. Interactivity can assess performance. Once the leaner has had an opportunity to practice the new skill, some sort of test should be done to ensure that learning has occurred.

For example, let us suppose that the instructional goal is to teach safe sexual behavior. Attention can be gained by asking the user to select the gender and name for a computer character. After the learner is presented information on safe sexual behavior, Practice is provided by placing the character in a number of sexual situations and requiring the learner is to make decisions regarding the sexual behavior of the character. If the user makes unsafe decisions for the character, negative feedback and remediation are provided. If safe choice are made, positive feedback is given. At the conclusion of the practice session, the student is tested by being given ten multiple-choice questions regarding safe sexual behavior. After the test, the student is informed of the score, and provided praise or remediation.

Where Should Interactivity Be Used?

Alessi and Trollip (1985) describe several types of computer-assisted instruction where interactivity can be used--tutorials, drills, simulations, tests, teaching tools, expert systems, and computer-controlled media.

Tutorials teach by carrying on a dialogue with the student. They present information, ask the student questions, and make instructional decisions based on the student's responses. Questions should occur frequently. Lengthy information presentations are best divided into small amounts of information interspersed with embedded testing. This will help maintain attention and ensure student comprehension. Questions are generally of a true/false, multiple-choice, matching, or fill-in-the-blank type.

A drill is a selection of questions or problems presented repeatedly until the student answers or solves all of them at a predetermined level of proficiency. Practice is the primary purpose of drills. Teaching of new information is generally done prior to the drill session. Questions are generally of a multiple-choice, sentence-completion, or short-answer type. Paired association (e.g., English nouns and their Spanish equivalents) are frequently use.

Simulations are simplified representations of reality in order to teach key concepts. Instruction through simulation may also be safer and cheaper than real-world experience. Simulations can teach physical reality, procedures, or processes. Simulations can be completely textual, in which case the action takes place in the student's brain and the main forms of interactivity are reading and typing. Simulations may also be quite realistic (e.g., simulated aircraft cockpit) and require a number of complex actions by the user.

Games are familiar to all of us and, when used for instructional purposes, can be highly motivating. The user generally interacts with the computer through the keyboard, touchscreen, joystick, game-paddle, or (increasingly) by voice recognition. In this environment, fill-in-the-blank questions are harder than multiple-choice questions for the student to answer, but they are a better measure of student understanding. Touchscreens or joysticks are easier to use than keyboards, but not all computers are equipped with these devices.

Tests are an important component in the instructional process. Computerized testing can be a great improvement over traditional methods by increasing scoring accuracy and lesson enjoyment, as well as providing immediate feedback to the student. Record-keeping can also occur automatically for the instructor. A number of questioning formats are possible, all of which have been previously discussed.

Teaching tools are non-instructional computer programs used for instructional purposes. For example, word processing packages can be used to teach secretarial skills and language arts.

Expert systems are programs that contain detailed information on a particular topics, a set of logic that ties the information together, and a program that enables a user to converse with the computer in natural language. An example of an expert system would be a medical program that helps student physicians make clinical diagnoses.

Computer-controlled media are video and audio resources linked to computers. Computers can be linked to interactive videodisc players and interactive CD players. Apple's Hypercard and Asymetrix's Toolbook are software programs that allow for multimedia manipulation. Through digital video interactive and CD-ROM, the computer itself can be the host for a rich hypermedia environment. Hypermedia has the potential for fully integrating text, graphics, still video, full-motion video, and stereo into a single environment. IBM's InfoWindows and NCR's Digital Multimedia Interactive are software/hardware combinations that are utilizing this emerging technology. In all these media applications, a number of previously discussed input devices may be used. Novel input devices, such as bar-code scanners, laser pistols, and electronic gloves have also been used.

When Should Interactivity Be Used?

According to Hannafin and Peck (1988), one of the chief advantages of computer-based instruction over text-based instruction and other linear media is the potential for interactivity. Unfortunately, the computer is often reduced to an electronic page-turner. That is, it is used as an expensive, high-tech medium for presenting text. On the other extreme, some computer-based lessons require too much response. Many of the questions appear trivial and the answers too obvious. The challenge is to find a middle ground between these two extremes which will allow meaningful interaction between the student and the computer. Four of Gagné's events of instruction can serve as a good guideline for when to incorporate interactivity into CBI.

Use interactivity to gain and maintain attention. At the start of the lesson, Hannafin and Peck recommend soliciting the student's name and other bits of biographical information. This data can then be woven into the lesson so that it is more personal for each learner. Attentional and interest can also be gained by giving the student choices about the format and sequencing of lesson. For instance, at the start of an instructional game, the computer might ask, "What would you like to do? 1. Read the directions before playing. 2. Skip the directions and start playing now." By offering a choice, experienced players can bypass lengthy directions, thus enhancing willingness to play.

It is not enough to initially capture the learner's attention--it must be maintained throughout the lesson. Interactivity can help maintain attention. There is no clear-cut rule for how frequently to use interactivity to maintain attention. However, some sort of meaningful student response should probably be elicited every 2-3 frames or 1-2 minutes.

Use interactivity to elicit performance and provide feedback. After a chunk of information has been presented to the learner, the computer can ask a question or pose a problem to ensure that the learner has grasped the material. The computer can positively reinforce a correct response and remediate an incorrect response. For example, after the student has been given the definition of a triangle and shown examples and non-examples of triangle, a practice exercise might be, "Of the four figures below, which is not a triangle?" If the student responds correctly, the computer says, "That's right, John! It is not a triangle because it has four sides." If the student responds incorrectly, the computer says, "That's not right, John. The figure you picked is a triangle because it has three sides. Try again." This can be done until the correct response is made.

Once again, there is no definitive rule for how many practice items are required for each piece of information. A single practice item may be sufficient for verbal information (e.g., the name of the bone in the upper arm), whereas numerous practice items may be needed for learning intellectual skills (e.g., solving quadratic equations).

Use interactivity to assess performance. After information has been presented to the student, practice has been allowed, and feedback given, testing should be done. For example, after a lesson on calculating the fat content of packaged food products, the student is asked, "Using the package label below, determine the percentage of calories from fat. Type your answer in the space provided." Several similar test items may be given. After the test, if performance was acceptable, praise and enrichment may be provided to the learner. If performance was unacceptable, remediation and retesting may be provided.

As in all instructional development, formative evaluation of CBI materials is essential. One-on-one and small group evaluation of CBI lessons, conducted with trial students of variable abilities, will reveal when too much or too little interaction as been included in a lesson.

How Should Interactivity Be Used?

Hon (1982) describes three levels of CBI interactivity--1) directed/response, 2) exploratory, and 3) creativity. Most CBI is done at the first level, directed/response. This means that the user is asked to select, recall, or in some way perform for the computer. Multiple-choice, matching, fill-in-the-blank, and true/false questions are all examples of this first level.

Level 2 interactivity is exploratory. Exploratory interactivity is non-directed. The student is encouraged to scout through the learning environment on her own. The user has a large degree of freedom in selecting where to go and when. Examples of this include hypertext/hypermedia systems and surrogate travel programs. Even though exploratory interactivity is non-directed, it is not necessarily purposeless. In an instructional setting, the computer can pose problems to the student which must be solved by manipulating the learning environment. An example of this is SimCity, an instructional game designed to teach city planning concepts. The user is charged with building and maintaining a simulated city while dealing with a variety of factors (geography, migration, natural disasters, etc.)

Level 3 interactivity is creativity. This type of interactivity allows the user to manipulate the instructional materials to develop his own programs, reports, or artwork. For example, the AIDS interactive videodisc developed by ABC News can be repurposed by the student using Hypercard. Creativity has rarely been incorporated into CBI, but it is becoming more common as software and hardware advances.

References

Alessi, S.M. and Trollip, S.R. (1985). Computer-based instruction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Hannafin, M.J. and Peck, K.L. (1988). The design and development of instructional software. New York: Macmillan.

Heinich, R., Molenda, M., and Russell, J.D. (1989). Instructional media and the new technologies of instruction. New York: Macmillan.

Hon, D. (1982). Future directions. Chapter in Handbook of Interactive Video. White Plain, NY: Knowledge Industry Publications.

Master's Comprehensive Examination: Dr. Keller's Question

The primary purpose of this examination is for you to analyze your experience in managing an instructional development project with respect to your application of principles of leadership, planning, organizing, directing, and controlling. To what extent did you apply principles or procedures from the material you have learned, and to what extent did you have to work on the basis of intuition or go to additional sources?

Please provide a brief description of the instructional development situation you will analyze and your management responsibilities with respect to people and processes. Then describe how you used principles of leadership and managing task-oriented meetings, how you used planning principles and procedures, how how managed the organizing and directing (motivating in Hersey and Blanchard's model) processes, and how you dealt with the controlling responsibilities (i.e., were there problems and how did you solve them). In each of these contexts, indicate areas where you were not sufficiently prepared and how you responded in those circumstances.

Given the limitation of your response (8 pages) you will have to be succinct and cover the most salient points.

During the summer of 1991, I engaged in a 200-hour instructional design internship. The preceptor for this experience was Susan Winter, a self-employed instructional systems and human performance consultant. My sole project during this period was the development of a pre-service training program for Parents Anonymous (PA) of Florida group facilitators.

Parents Anonymous or Florida, Inc., is a non-profit agency that provides confidential group support and education to parents who are at high risk for abusive behavior toward their children. Local Parents Anonymous groups are led by volunteer facilitators, most of whom are social work or counseling professionals. New facilitators are required to receive pre-service training. Parents Anonymous headquarters staff felt that the existing pre-service training curriculum lacked standardization and was not comprehensive.

My task was to revise the pre-service training curriculum according to systematic instructional design principles. The project proceeded in four phases: 1) instructional analysis, 2) development of an instructional strategy, 3) development and formative evaluation of instructional materials, and 4) final revision of instructional materials. An eight-hour training program was developed. The final products of this project were an instructor's guide, a participant's guide, printed supplemental instructional materials, and a post-test.

My main subject-matter experts for this project were two staff members of Parent's Anonymous of Florida--Stephanie Farque, the executive director, and Tracey Kennedy, the training coordinator. Ms. Kennedy is subordinate to Ms. Farque, but they tended to interact in a a collegial fashion. I had day-to-day contact Ms. Kennedy and less frequent contact with Ms. Farque. In addition to being a subject-matter expert, Ms. Kennedy was also the anticipated primary instructor for the course. As such, the trial students (all candidate facilitators) were supordinate to her. I interacted with both Ms. Farque and Ms. Kennedy as my peers. I did not have any direct interaction with the trial students.

I had weekly contact with Susan Winter--primarily by telephone. Ms. Winter reviewed reports and products after each phase of the project. She was also available for technical assistance. Ms. Winter was in a superordinate position to me, but our interactions were generally collegial in tone.

I also gained additional subject-matter expertise from a current PA group facilitator, Lisa Dixon, and a PA parent, Shannon. I interacted with both of these individuals as my peers.

Figure 1 illustrates the relationships discussed above in Hon's (1980) terms for organizational hierarchies.

Figure 1

Use of Principles of Leadership

Hersey and Blanchard (1988) define leadership as the attempt to influence the behavior of an organization or group. Management is the exercising of leadership to achieve organizational goals.

Situational Leadership is Hersey and Blanchard's model for effectively leading and managing. According to this model, there is not one best way to influence people. There are four basic styles in which a leader can engage--telling (S1), selling (S2), participating (S3), and delegating (S4). Similarly, there are four readiness level for followers--unable and unwilling (R1) unable but willing (R2), able but unwilling (R3), and able and willing (R4). Which style a leader should use depends on the readiness level of the people that are to being influenced. For example, if followers are able and willing to do a task (R4), the manager can operate by delegating responsibility to the followers (S4).

During most of this project, the staff of Parents Anonymous were willing to help with the design process but were unable to do so without direction (R2). Consequently, it was necessary for me to exercise an S2 style of leadership. This means I had to give direction on what to do and explain why it needed to be done. The followers were encouraged to ask questions and get clarification.

Apart from Situational Leadership, Hersey and Blanchard describe four interrelated managerial functions: planning, organizing, motivating (a.k.a., directing), and controlling. Let us discuss my application of management principles in each of these areas during the project.

Use of Planning Principles and Procedures

Harrison (1986) describes a number of tools for planning projects. The two that I utilized during this internship were the PERT chart and the Gantt chart. PERT stands for Program Evaluation and Review Technique and was developed in 1958 by the U.S. Navy Special Projects Office. PERT charts represent significant project events as circles (nodes) and project activities as arrows (vectors). PERT charts clearly show the interrelationships between numerous project events and activities. At a glance, a PERT charts reveal the essential sequencing of a project.

Gantt charts were developed by Henry L. Gantt in 1917. They visually display the scheduled start and stop dates for project activities. Each activity is represented as a bar on the y-axis plotted against units of time on the x-axis. The time units can be small (hours) or large (months) depending on the project.

Both PERT and Gantt charts are cumbersome to construct by hand. Fortunately, a number of software packages are commercially available for this purpose. The one I utilized for this project was Microsoft Project for Windows. Working from the start of the project until the end, I entered key activities and the estimated number of days need to complete each activity. I also indicated the sequencing of activities. Microsoft Project automatically calculated the start and stop date of each activity. I was able to modify the length of individual activities until the total allotted project length was achieved. Using a single data table, I was able to switch from Gantt to PERT views with a single command. A hardcopy of the Gantt chart was provided to Parents Anonymous. I retained a hardcopy of the PERT chart for my own use. Use of these charts allowed me to keep the project on track and to finish within the designate time period.

After constructing the initial charts, I failed to use the software to track project progress. Due to the complexity of the software and the inadequate RAM of my hardware, it seemed to be too much trouble to delete tasks, add new tasks, modify time frames, and reprint the charts. However, I did constantly refer to and modify the original hardcopy charts.

Management of the Organizing Process

Hersey and Blanchard describe organizing as the integration of resources. During my internship, it was necessary for me to coordinate my own design activities, those of the subject-matter experts, and those of the internship supervisor. The Gantt and PERT charts assisted greatly with this process. Occasionally there was a delay in task completion from one of these resources. In such cases, gentle reminders were made. Sometimes time constraints made it necessary to proceed with project activities in spite of uncompleted tasks.

Because of my supervisory and health project planning experience, I felt adequately prepared for this function. However, interns who do not have experience in team leading might have difficulty managing the activities of several individuals.

Management of the Motivating (Directing) Process

Hersey and Blanchard describe motives as the "whys" of behavior. They are the needs, wants, and drives within an individual. Maslow classifies needs into five major categories: physiologic, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization. Goals are the "hoped for" rewards toward which motives are directed. Followers are more likely to pursue objectives that are beneficial to an organization when they perceive that their own goals are likely to be met as a result.

All of the individuals with whom I interacted appeared to be highly motivated to participate in this project. This is perhaps due to the social or affiliation needs that are met by the Parents Anonymous organization. Because of the serious problem dealt with by Parents Anonymous, and the caring approach that is taken to deal with the problem, a "family" atmosphere is discernable at both the local and state level. State and volunteers have a genuine concern for the organization and the people served by it. They saw the project as good for the organization, and thus congruent with their personal goals for affiliation.

Since Susan Winter is not involved with Parents Anonymous, esteem needs may have motived her to serve as my internship supervisor. Preceptorship bestows a certain amount of prestige and power. I attempted to reinforce Ms. Winter's prestige by thanking her in public on several occasions.

Since I am a task-oriented individual, I have a tendency to neglect the emotional and relational needs of others in the workplace. Other instructional designers with similar tendencies should be reminded not to forget important human relation skills such as making small-talk and showing appreciation.

Controlling Responsibilities

Hersey and Blanchard describe controlling as the monitoring of a project to compare actual outcomes with expected ones, and then making necessary adjustments to achieve the desired goal.

As discussed earlier, I engaged in overall control of this project by using the PERT and Gantt charts. Since most tasks in the instructional design process tended to take longer than planned, it sometimes become necessary to collapse or delete less important tasks. I consulted Ms. Winters for advice on which activities this could be done. Using her advice and my own intuition, I was able complete the project within the allotted time period.

Managing Task-Oriented Meetings

Another vital managerial activity not addressed by Hersey and Blanchard is leading meetings. According to Hon (1980), task-oriented meetings (TOMs) are designed to use a group process to solve problems in a minimum amount of time. During this internship, I engaged in a number of task-oriented meetings--usually with a one person at a time. Most of the meetings were with peers. Hon's general guidelines for peer TOMs include a perceived mandate from superiors, the right people at the meeting, a working agenda, and time allotments. I had a perceived mandate from the executive director of Parents Anonymous, which translated into enthusiastic cooperation from important subject-matter experts. When scheduling a meeting with an individual, I stated the primary purpose of the meeting. Often, questionnaires, reports or draft materials were distributed to the individual in advance of the meeting so that they could be reviewed. I approached each meeting with an unwritten agenda, which I usually shared with the other person at the start of the meeting. A time allotment was made for each meeting, but not generally for each item on the agenda.

Hon also recommends six activities through which all task-oriented meetings should proceed: goal setting, information gathering, problem solving, decision making, action pathing, and coordinating. How these steps are conducted depends on the meeting leader's relationship to the meeting participants (superordinate, peer, or subordinate). As stated above, I came to each meeting with a specific goal in mind. I shared information with the other individual and solicited information from them. When a problem presented itself, potential solutions were discussed and a decision made regarding the best solution. A verbal plan was developed for implementing the solution. After the meeting I ensured that the actions steps were completed.

I should point out that I was not consciously following Hon's principles when conducting these meetings. However, the basic concepts seem to have become part of my operating style.

A problem that arose from task-oriented meetings was difficulty in clearly communicating pre-meeting instructions and decisions made during meetings. There were several occasions when I thought Ms. Kennedy and I left a meeting with a mutual understanding of what I needed from her--only later to discover that she had a completely different understanding of the conversation. I attempted to solve this problem by using more written communication. However, this did not seem to alleviate the miscommunication. In the future, perhaps I should engage in more paraphrasing and feedback with meeting participants in order to verify understanding.

References

Harrison (1986). Project management principles.

Hersey, P., and Blanchard, K.H. (1988). Management of organizational behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Hon, D. (1980). Meetings that matter. John Wiley & Sons.

Hypertext: A Critical Analysis

John C. Bradley

EME 6507

Abstract

Hypertext is a computer-based system for organizing, storing, and accessing print-based information in a non-sequential manner. This paper discusses the hardware that makes hypertext possible and describes some prominent hypertext software. The psychological basis for hypertext are reviewed--schema theory, web learning, and generative learning. Issues related to hypertext as a learning medium are discussed, as are implications for instructional design.

Issue Addressed by Paper

Jonassen (1986, 1988, 1991) describes hypertext as a computer-based software system for organizing, storing, and accessing information in a non-sequential manner. Hypertext is dynamic rather than static. Hypertext allows for multiple pathways by readers with different interests, permitting them to determine their own individual presentation sequences based on their own preferred styles of reading or information needs. Hypertext gives the user immediate access to any of the information in a knowledge base.

Each chunk of information is called a node. These nodes are connected by "links," which are generally key words identified by highlighting, color coding, or reverse video. Sometimes links are identified as icons embedded in the text.

Jonassen (1986) describes three levels of hypertext: Chucked hypertext is completely random. Each node carries the same weight and can be accessed from any other node. Structured hypertext consists of sets of related nodes, each set accessible form any other set. In hierarchical hypertext, more detailed nodes are subsumed under more general concepts, requiring users to move up and down through the hierarchy in order to access related concepts.

Jonassen identifies several general applications for hypertext systems: Browsing systems enable users to navigate and explore information knowledge bases. Problem exploration systems are work-related and facilitate specific task domains. These systems help users organize and construct information. Macro-literary systems are not single documents but are a collection of material linked together by hypertext. General-purpose systems are not designed to facilitate any specific function, but can be tailored to a variety of needs.

Purpose of Paper

This paper will provide an overview of the technological, psychological, and pedagogical perspectives related to hypertext as a learning medium. Implications for instructional design are discussed. Significant issues are raised and conclusions are made.

Critical Review and Analysis

Technological Perspective

Although the concept of hypertext in print form was proposed forty years ago, the advent of microcomputers has made hypertext technologically feasible (Marchionini, 1988). Microcomputers have a variety of attribute that make them ideal for hypertext.

Computers can store large amounts of data in digital, electronic form. The compact disc with read-only memory (CD-ROM) is a well-established new technology. Each side of a 4.75-inch CD has the capacity to store 150,000 pages of text. (Locatis, 1989)

Computers can be networked into even larger databases. Commercial systems such as TELENET, and university systems like Internet, link computers and terminal together by telephone, allowing individuals to access different databases, send electronic mail, and browse bulletin boards. Although it has been difficult in the past for users to access multiple information systems--since the systems use different operating systems and commands--gateway software is being developed which will translate commands across systems. With such software, users will be able to log onto a single system to obtain information from different systems. (ibid.)

Computers are fast. Microcomputers with processing speeds of 10 megahertz are common. Even faster devices exist (ibid.). Such speeds make it possible to search massive databases for key words in a short period of time. This speed also allows for rapid, arbitrary jumps to material stored at another location in the computer's memory. (Jonassen, 1986)

High-resolution screens allow for the simultaneous display of text (in several sizes and fonts) and graphics (still and animated). Icons, color, and reverse video can be used to signal users about a hypertext link. Information displayed on a screen can be scrolled smoothly or flipped instantaneously. Windowing, or simultaneous display of more than one document on a screen is also possible. (Jonassen, 1986)

There are a number of software programs that exemplify the current capabilities of hypertext. KMS is a hypertext and hypermedia program created by Knowledge Systems, Inc. It operates on high-end workstations. A highly flexible tool for both writers and readers, KMS supports information creation, editing, and retrieval in networks. The system is explicitly aimed at improving productivity among groups that use very large databases or complex information (such as policy and maintenance manuals, project managers and expert systems). Versions of KMS have been used on the nuclear aircraft carrier, USS Carl Vinson, and in Westinghouse nuclear power plants. (Binder, 1989)

Another system designed for high-end workstation is Document Examiner, developed by Symbolics, Inc. It is used for presenting technical and operation manuals to users of Symbolics' artificial intelligence computers. It provides access to thousands of pages of technical information by combining both associative and search technologies with an easy-to-operate user interface. Users can search by keyword to locate likely entry-points into the documentation, then traverse through the database by using the mouse to follow hypertext linkages from that point on. Document Examiner was created specifically to provide efficient access to technical documentation. A measure of this system's success is that as many as 40 percent of the system's users do not even remove the shrink wrap from Symbolics' paper manuals because they are able to find what the need so readily using Document Examiner. (ibid.)

Window Book, from Box Company, was the first commercially available hypertext system for IBM-compatible microcomputers. The developer of Window Book, Michael Spier, aimed to produce an efficient tool for early IBMs--which had limited storage and graphics capabilities. Window Book was not developed specifically as a hypertext system, but as a cross-referencing system for large diskette-based documents. Eventually, Box Company was commissioned to expand the system's capabilities for navigating through hypertext documents published on multi-volume CD-ROMs. These document are often tens of thousands of pages in length. Among the system's strengths is a set of built-in navigational aids. This includes an automatically created table of contents, which is a "bread crumb trail" that records what articles the user has accessed in traveling through hyperspace. Licensees can choose to integrate Window Book in a context-sensitive manner with other software or hardware systems, to create links from inside a Window Book to bit-mapped graphics or interactive videodisc, or to provide full-text search or keyword search capabilities. There are versions of Window Book that run under MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows, and the Unix operating system. (ibid.)

Guide is a hypertext system released by Office Workstations, Ltd. It was originally developed for the Macintosh, but was later adapted for IBM PCs operating under Microsoft Windows. Guide was not originally developed as a hypertext system, but as an experiment in putting text into electronic form. In fact, Guide is much like a standard word processor. Because it operates in a bit-mapped graphics environment, Guide is capable of including complex diagrams and technical drawing along with textual materials. It employs a mouse-driven user interface with icons and pulldown menus. Ford Motor Company has used an industrial version of Guide for its database of technical manuals. Unfortunately, Guide suffers form a lack of efficient built-in navigation aids, a weakness that allows users to become easily lost. (ibid.)

Hypercard is perhaps the best known and most-used hypertext and hypermedia system. Hypercard is shipped free with each Apple Macintosh computer. Hypercard is both more and less than a true hypertext system. Because it includes a linking feature for creating paths through textural, graphic, and multimedia information, Hypercard can function as a text-retrieval tool. In fact, many of the commercial application of Hypercard have been textual publication, usually including substantial amounts of graphics as well. One example is the Hypercard Whole Earth Catalog. Hypercard includes basic, but slow, text search capabilities. Several third-party developers have offered faster add-ons for text search. Hypercard functions well as a front-end to complex networks of other computer programs, databases and system softwares. Hypercard has its own programming language (HyperTalk) that can be used to customize Hypercard for a wide-variety of uses. (ibid.)

Psychological Perspective

One of the theoretical bases for hypertext is schema theory. A person's schema for an object, event, or idea consists of the amalgamation of distinctive features of and associations to the idea. Each schema represents a mini-framework on which to interrelate elements of information about a topic into one conceptual unit. Schemata are linked one to another by context-dependent descriptions. That is, the relationships between any two schemata are relative to the context in which they are used. One schema refers to another only through the use of a description which is dependent on the context of the original reference. In different contexts, people will use different schemata. The schemata that a learner accesses to interpret new information is necessarily idiosyncratic. Hypertext is a form of communication which accommodates these idiosyncrasies. (Jonassen, 1986)

A learner's s schematic network is often diagrammed and represented spatially as webs of information. Web learning principles assume that new information is integrated into prior knowledge by means of a web of structures rather than in a linear fashion. New material is intertwined in the web at nodes (schema) that are related to it. The web grows as learners acquire more detailed information. In order to connect new information to the learner's existing structure, we must first present a supporting web structure, then add details later. Hypertext manifests web teaching principles by using hierarchical connections between nodes. (ibid.)

Similar to web learning theory is the generative learning hypothesis. Generative learning principles contend that when interacting with information or instructional stimuli (text, illustrations, language), learners activate prior knowledge structures for the purpose of interpreting the stimuli. This is, new information has meaning only insofar as learners can find prior knowledge to explain it. According to the generative model of learning, learning is an active process of constructing knowledge. What an individual comprehends from material depends on what they already know. How they interpret information, then, depends on what they know, how it is organized, and how they are able to access it and relate it to new knowledge. For example, the meaning of a text is determined by the learner. Given the same textual material, each of us will generate somewhat different interpretations for it. Hypertext permits learners to individualize the knowledge-acquisition process. Hypertext allows users to interact with new information in the way that is most useful to them--that is, to customize the accession of information. (ibid.)

Pedagogical Perspective

Wilson and Jonassen (1989) recommend that learners be allowed to make as many control decisions as possible in a hypertext environment. Learners should be provided with learning aids and expert advice only when necessary.

However, effective self-management skills are a factor in how much control the learner should be given in hypertext versus how much guidance the system should provide via tutorials and suggest paths (Kinzie & Berdel, 1990, and Wilson & Jonassen, 1989). Less structure should be provided for high-ability students and more for low-ability students (Allred & Locatis, 1988).

An important issue is integration of the hypertext information with knowledge structure of the learner. The less structured the hypertext is, the less likely users are to integrate what they have learned. Without an explicit external organization, many learners have difficulty acquiring new knowledge. (Jonassen, 1988)

Distraction may result from the high level of learner control that hypermedia systems provide. Cognitive resources may be diverted from content and relationships as learners attend to navigational decision-making. Distraction is also compounded by the vast quantities of information available at the click of a mouse. (Marchionini, 1988)

Related to distraction is the possibility of information overload. The richness of non-linear representations carries a risk for intellectual indigestion, loss of goal-directedness, and cognitive entropy. (Jonassen, 1988)

Disorientation is also a common problem for learners in a hypertext environment. Traveling from link to link to link may result in "getting lost in hyperspace. " When learners use a system, they need to know where they are in relation to some kind of identifiable structure. To move efficiently through hypertext and find needed information, learners must be able to return to a familiar origin or to see their location on some kind of map or table of contents. (Binder, 1989)

Implications for Instructional Systems

Jonassen (1986) has proposed a systematic procedure for the design of hypertexts: 1) Identify all key concepts. This is basically a content analysis. 2) Map the structure of the content. This includes tree construction, networking, and noting patterns. 3) Verify the structure by consulting subject-matter experts. 4) Determine the type of hypertext structure--chucked, structured, or hierarchical. 5) Prepare concept blocks. That is, write the text for each node. 6) Provide links and cues to other concepts. Links may be indicated by highlighted keywords or icons in the text. 7) Debug the system. Try out each and every option of the hypertext to be certain that the system performs faultlessly.

Binder (1989) offers a number of tips for hypertext writing. 1) Modularity. Information should be broken into small units. This eliminates the need for redundancy. Each module should be assigned a title or set of keywords. 2) Structured writing. A consistent style and format should be used for each chunk. 3) Linking. Links should be kept to a minimum. A link should only be made when there is a compelling reason to do so. 4) Layers of views. Since hypertext is modular, it is possible to create the effect of having different documents for different types of users. For instance, a personnel manual might be programmed to show different modules depending on whether the users was a low-level employee or a high-level supervisor.

On a more technological note, Binder (1989) recommends a number of navigational aids to help users maneuver through hypertext. 1) Graphical maps (a.k.a. graphical browsers) are a must. A good hypertext should begin by showing a map of the whole text. This map should represent the whole web of interrelated concepts contained in the hypertext. 2) A "bread crumb trail" is an aid that automatically records where the user has been in his or her movement through the database. For instance, Hypercard offers an iconic representation of the last 40 cards visited. A benefit of this feature is that a user may go back to past references without having to trace backwards through layers one-by-one. 3) Commands that enable users to step back or ahead one node at a time in a default sequence also prevents users disorientation. Hypercard uses arrow buttons as forward and back switches.

Binder (ibid.) also recommends link-level controls that allow a user to limit the links shown. By filtering the options down to a manageable size, the reader is better able to move through large hypertext documents.

Pulldown menus, such as those found in Macintosh and Microsoft Windows platforms, make accessing commands easy for users. Speed-keys are also recommended. (Wilson and Jonassen, 1989)

Some hypertext systems are designed to be freely interactive, allowing users to either read or write information at any time. In other types of applications, central control or security of the core document is an important consideration. Thus, a system providing multiple levels of access is often appropriate. (Binder, 1989)

In hypertext systems, a user should have quick access to on-line references. One way of providing this is context-sensitive help. That is, the system can provide information or appropriate assistance to the user depending one where the user is in the text or what commands the user is activating. This help may be requested by the user, or it may be unsolicited advice unknowingly activated by the users actions. (ibid.)

Kinzie & Berdel (1990) recommend other useful tools for hypertext users: glossaries of unfamiliar terms, note pads for users to clip and write textual information for later easy access, and drawing tablets for creating graphic notes.

Summary of Significant Issues and Conclusions

Technologically, hypertext is still in its infancy. As the capabilities of microcomputers increase, so will the sophistication of hypertext systems. Hypertext will eventually be part of a new generation of fully integrated electronic media. David Brin (1991) envisions a 21st century global hypermedia system that full integrates text, graphics, computer software, electronic mail, telephone, video, and audio. Instructional designers should keep abreast of technological progress but avoid becoming too much of an expert in any one medium.

Psychologically, we know that everyone learns in slightly different ways. Hypertext allows learners the freedom to learn in their own way. It enables the non-sequential exploration and assimilation of written information. However, since learners often require help in forming new knowledge structures, explicit organization and direction should be available when needed. The proper balance between discovery learning vs. directed learning in hypertext environments is one which deserves additional research by instructional designers.

Pedagogically, hypertext offers a number of challenges. How does one write objectives and create appropriate learning assignments for hypertext? How does one evaluate student learning in a hypertext environment? What is the proper role of the teacher? What is the proper role of the student? Here, too, instructional designers can help determine the effective application of hypertext in education.

References

Allred, K.F. and Locatis, C. (1988). Research, instructional design, and new technology. Journal of Instructional Development, 11(1), pp. 2-5.
Binder, C. (1989). Hypertext design issues. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 2(3), pp. 16-33.
Jonassen, D.H. (1986). Hypertext principles for text and coursewear design. Educational Psychologist, 21(4), pp. 269-292.
Jonassen, D.H. (1988). Designing structured hypertext and structuring access to hypertext. Educational Technology, November 1988, pp. 13-15.
Jonassen, D.H. (1991). Hypertext as instructional design. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 39, pp. 83-92.
Kinzie, M.B. and Berdel, R.L. (1990). Design and use of hypermedia systems. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 38, pp. 61-68.
Locatis, C. (1989). Information retrieval systems and learning. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 2(3), pp. 4-15.
Marchionini, G. (1988) Hypermedia and learning: freedom and chaos. Educational Technology, November 1988, pp. 8-12.
Wilson, B.G., and Jonassen, D.H. (1989). Hypertext and instructional design: some preliminary guidelines. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 2(3), pp. 34-39.

Florida State University's Instructional Television Network

John C. Bradley

EME 6507

Abstract

Florida State University's Interactive Television Network links the main campus in Tallahassee with a branch campus in Panama City, Florida. Each campus has a studio/classroom equipped with video cameras, monitors, and microphones. Using compressed video technology and a dedicated fiber optic telephone line, visual and audio information are transmitted between classrooms simultaneously--resulting in a live, extended classroom. Student and instructor responses to this technology are discussed, as are implications for instructional design and delivery.

Problem/Need Addressed by Project

The Panama City Campus (PCC) of Florida State University (FSU) has been offering courses to the residents of Bay County since 1982. Currently there are almost 1000 students. Although it is desirable to offer a wide variety of courses at the branch campus, but it is economically unfeasible to maintain full-time faculty in all academic areas at PCC. The only solution, until recently, has been to import instructors from the main campus in Tallahassee. Each week, about 50 instructors make a four-hour bus trip to and from PCC to teach approximately 80 classes. The growth projected during the next decade will make it increasingly difficult to satisfy the branch's instructional demands using the current shuttle system. Also, many instructors refuse to teach at the branch campus because of the long transit time (FSU, Note 1).

Project Goals/Description

After a thorough study was completed, it was decided that compressed interactive video was the most effective alternative to the current system (ibid.). Funded out of FSU's general budget, the Instructional Television Network started full operation during the fall semester of 1991 (Kennedy, Note 2). The main campus in Tallahassee and the branch campus in Panama City are each equipped with a complete studio classroom. Each studio is staffed by a full-time video director/studio supervisor (FSU, Note 1). Approximately three classes per week are currently being offered by this medium, but the system has the capability of handling 25-30 classes per week (Bolduc, Note 3).

Since the Department of Instructional Television is not under any college or school within the university, all faculty have equal access to this resource. In addition to being used for instructional purposes, this facility can be used for student advising, dissertation defenses, and departmental meetings (Kennedy, Note 2).

Media/Technology Employed

Each classroom has at least two floor cameras. These cameras are remotely controlled by the studio supervisor at each location. The cameras, which are mounted on movable pedestals, may be focused on the instructor, the students in the class, or a white board at the front of the class.

In addition to the floor cameras, each site is equipped with one overhead camera that is permanently located in the ceiling and pointed downward toward the top of the instructor's desk. This camera is also remotely controlled. If an instructor normally lectures using an overhead projector, the overhead camera can be used as a substitute. The overhead camera captures whatever is written or placed in front of it. The image is transmitted to the television monitors in each classroom so that the students can see the material (FSU, Note 1).

Each classroom is also equipped with several large-screen monitors. These monitors are positioned so that each student has an adequate view (Kennedy, Note 2).

Each classroom is equipped with a wireless instructor lavalliere microphone and several desk-mounted student microphones. The student microphones are voice-activated to prevent more than one student from speaking at a time. The studio director also has control over the volume of each microphone (ibid.).

During the class, the video director chooses the best camera angle and transmits it to the other classroom. Similarly, the video director at the other campus chooses the best angle in the in the other classroom. When a student in the distant classroom has a question, the camera zooms on that student so that the instructor can see the student (FSU, Note 1).

Both video and audio images are transmitted via a dedicated optical fiber line. Using a device called a "codec," the visual and audio images from each classroom can be sent to the other classroom simultaneously. This means that the instructor can hear and see the students in the distant classroom, and the students can hear and see the instructor at the same time. The net effect is a virtually "live" extended classroom (ibid.).

Impact

Since this system has only been operational since August 1991, little evaluation data has been collected. A survey of student attitudes was recently conducted but has not yet been tabulated. However, the researcher's impression is that, in general, students are positive about the system. Some students complain about the monitors being too small and audio level being too low (Bolduc, Note 3).

A survey of instructors is planned for the near future. Anecdotally, some instructors are positive about this system because they perceive opportunities for publishing papers regarding the medium. Other instructors are negative about the system. This is largely a result of faculty's historic resistance to new instructional technology. In addition, some faculty are concerned that videotaped lectures might be used to evaluate their performance as an instructor (ibid.).

A review of the literature indicates that there is no significant difference in student performance with this medium when compared with traditional lectures, as long as the course is well designed and students have an opportunity to interact with the instructor (ibid.).

Cost-effectiveness of the system has not yet been evaluated. At present, the system is probably not cost-effective because it is not being used to full capacity. It may take several years for the system to reach full utilization and pay for itself (ibid.).

Implications for Design

Compressed video can easily accommodate the traditional lecture format. However, there are characteristics of this medium that designers and instructors should keep in mind.

While compressed video offers the advantage of instantaneous visual and auditory interaction between distant locations, the visual image appears to "smear" slightly with any fast or broad movements. The faster or broader a movement, the more the picture will blur. This is because current technology is limited in the amount of visual information that can be sent over a telephone line. The result is a television picture that is very clear with graphics, still pictures, or pictures with little movement. While the slight smearing is noticeable, students quickly become accustomed to it. However, courses which require a great deal of movement (e.g., aerobic dance) would be inappropriate for this medium (FSU, Note 1).

The instructor should periodically look at the camera and ask questions of the students at both sites. This will let the students at the distant site know that they have not been forgotten and help ensure that all students are actively involved. The instructor should repeat students' questions or comments in either classroom because the students in one classroom or the other may not have heard the question or comment (ibid.).

If writing on the white board, the instructor should not stand between the camera and the writing. The instructor should use large print and short line lengths. If long line lengths are used, the camera will have to zoom out and the writing may be too small for students at the distant site to see (ibid.).

When using the overheard camera, the instructor should write large enough for the camera to pick up the print. A dark felt-tip pen is recommended when writing on "overheads". Since the overhead camera has a ratio of 3 high by 4 wide, "overheads" should be in landscape orientation whenever possible. The instructor should avoid referring to an item or notes that are not in the camera's field of view (ibid.).

Any handouts, tests, or other documents should be developed and duplicated far enough in advance that they can be delivered to the distant site before class (ibid.).

A proctor should be arranged for administering tests at the distant site. In some cases, the video director may be recruited to serve as the proctor (Kennedy, Note 2).

Reference Notes

Florida state university instructional television network--itn instructor's handbook. Internal document, Florida State University.
Kennedy, R. Personal communication, October 28, 1991.
Bolduc, W. Personal communication, November 5, 1991.

Emerging Technologies in ISD—Telnet

HRS Telnet: A Case Study

John C. Bradley
EME 6507

Abstract

In an effort to decrease the costs associated with conventional training and to increase continuing education opportunities for its employees, the Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services (HRS) has initiated a $280,000 satellite teleconferencing system at 35 sites across the state. This paper describes the goals of the project, the technology involved, the anticipated impact, and the implications of this technology for instructional designers.

HRS Telnet: A Case Study

Problem/Need Addressed by Project

The Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services (HRS) is the largest state health and human services agency in the country. It has an annual budget of $9 billion, employs 46,000 people, and serves a state with a large geographic area. Providing conventional training and continuing education for employees results in heavy expenditures in travel, per diem, and staff down-time. The HRS Satellite Teleconference Network (Telnet) is currently being implemented by the department as a means of providing more cost-effective training and professional continuing education to employees (HRS, Note 1).

Project Goals/Description

HRS has identified five major goals for Telnet: 1) to increase employee access to education and training opportunities, 2) to reduce travel and per diem costs, 3) to reduce executive and staff down-time, 4) to maximize use of existing training resources, and 5) to improve communication efficiency and effectiveness (ibid.).

In addition to these goals, several principles were established for the project (ibid.):

* The hardware must be uniform across the state.

* The downlink equipment must be easy to use.

* The network must be cost-effective.

* Training of health professionals must be given highest priority.

* Downlinks must be established at sites where there is administrative support and geographic suitability.

With the assistance of Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University, the Department of General Services, and the Department of Education, the HRS Office of Staff Development and Training identified an acceptable vendor for the satellite systems and suitable downlink sites. A total of 35 downlink sites were identified. Each of HRS' eleven districts has from two to five sites. These sites are located in a variety of settings--district offices, county public health units, state hospitals, and economic services centers. All downlinks are expected to be operational by October 1, 1991 (Gould, Note 2).

The HRS Staff Development and Training Office continues to serve as the clearinghouse for teleconference opportunities. Using conventional and E-mail, this office notifies potential users of programs and schedules downlink time with each site coordinator (ibid.).

Most teleconference programs originate from out-of-state. A number of governmental and commercial agencies provide training programs via satellite. Some of these are free and others are pay-per-view. Through WFSU-TV, HRS will have access to studio equipment for originating it's own programming. However, development and uplink costs will make this an extremely rare occurrence (ibid.).

Media/Technology Employed

Each of the 35 downlink sites is equipped with a Microdyne satellite dish, a Chaparral Videocypher II Plus receiver, a video monitor, a VCR, and a Darome 1640 MD audio convener (ibid.).

The satellite dish can be aimed at a number of telecommunications satellites in geostationary orbit. A trained site coordinator does this by using on-screen menus to program the receiver with the correct satellite, the correct transponder, and the correct audio frequency for the teleconference to be accessed (ibid.).

The satellite dish and receiver are considered to be "high-end consumer" products. That is, they are of better quality than typical home satellite systems, but they are not as expensive as the systems utilized by television companies (ibid.).

The VCR is used to record "live" programs and view them at a later time (ibid).

If the teleconference is interactive, participants may use the audio convener to call the program originator with questions or comments. The audio convener is similar to a telephone but is equipped with a public address speaker and four unidirectional microphones. A participant's questions or comments are transmitted by normal telephone routes to the originator and then are broadcast to other teleconference participants by satellite (ibid.).

Impact

In June 1989, HRS conducted an AIDS teleconference at 18 remote viewing sites around the state. More than 3,500 people attended portions of the training. Prior to any instruction, 68 percent of participants correctly answered 80 percent of the pre-test items. Following instruction, 88 percent of the participants correctly answered 80 percent of the post-test items. Thus, percent-correct levels increased 20 percentage points as a result of instruction. A satisfaction survey revealed that the vast majority of participants rated the teleconference as superior or excellent as a learning experience (HRS, Note 4). The positive results of this teleconference was a factor in the department's decision to develop Telnet.

HRS has also been utilizing an audio teleconferencing systems for the past two years. This system uses conventional telephone lines and Darome audio conveners similar to the ones described above. This system has been installed at 90 HRS sites across the state. Although no summative evaluation has taken place, the training and managerial communications opportunities provided by this system paved the way for acceptance of a video teleconferencing system (Gould, Note 2).

Since HRS Telnet is not yet fully operational, little evaluation has been conducted at this time. However, evaluation activities are planned on four levels: 1) user satisfaction, 2) knowledge gain, 3) improved job performance, and 4) overall agency impact. Potential data sources include satisfaction surveys, pre and post-tests, telephone interviews, questionnaires, travel reports, and equipment utilization logs (ibid.).

Start-up costs for the HRS Telnet system was $280,000. Funds for the project were donated by the Florida Nurses Association in hopes of improving the continuing education opportunities for its members. It is expected that the system will pay for itself within two years by decreasing travel, per diem, and down-time costs associate with conventional training (HRS, Note 5).

Implications for Design

Teleconferencing is one of the fastest-growing segments of the telecommunications industry (Heinich, et al., 1989). Teleconferencing is ideal when there are a large number of participants, participants are widely dispersed, training can be administered in short period of time, and significant travel costs are involved. Teleconferencing is less beneficial when the topic requires confidentiality or security, when lengthy training is required. when participants are few and geographically close, or when face-to-face interaction is needed (HRS, Note 2).

Teleconferencing is an effective means of instructional delivery. Rushton (1981) found that learners scored just as well after receiving instruction through teleconferencing as through conventional instruction.

Start-up costs for teleconferencing equipment can be quite expensive, as can accessing pay-for-view training programs. However, these costs can often be quickly recouped by decreasing travel, per diem, and down-time costs that would normally be spent on conventional training (Gould, Note 2).

The costs of in-house development and delivery of high-quality teleconferences is prohibitive for most agencies. In most cases, training programs can be obtained from commercial or governmental sources (ibid.).

Trained coordinators are needed at each downlink site to operate the teleconferencing equipment and to facilitate instructional activities related to the teleconference--such as registration of participants, distribution of training materials, administration of tests, etc. (ibid.).

Teleconference training requires a great deal of advance planning and marketing. Care must be taken to inform potential users of the program, schedule use of the equipment, and dissiminate support materials (ibid.).

Teleconferencing is a medium with its own unique characteristics. Instructional designers should take care to involve a teleconferencing media expert in all phases of the instructional systems process (ibid.).

Reference Notes

1. Facts on the hrs teleconference network. Internal document, Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services (HRS), 1991.

2. Gould, J. Personal communication, September 23, 1991.

3. Teleconferencing handbook. Internal document, Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services (HRS) , 1991.

4. Evaluation of the HRS AIDS teleconference training program. Report in preparation, Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services (HRS), 1991.

5. Training by satellite. HRS Employee Newsletter, 1(1), p. 5.

References

Rushton, F. A. Teleconferencing versus conventional delivery of instruction in complex skills (Doctoral dissertation, Florida State University, 1981).

Heinich, R., Molenda, M., & Russell, J.D. Instructional media and the new technologies of instruction. New York: Macmillan, 1989.

Note

Why Use Interactivity?

Where Should Interactivity Be Used?

When Should Interactivity Be Used?

How Should Interactivity Be Used?

References

Use of Principles of Leadership

Use of Planning Principles and Procedures

Management of the Organizing Process

Management of the Motivating (Directing) Process

Controlling Responsibilities

Managing Task-Oriented Meetings

References

Hypertext: A Critical Analysis

Abstract

Issue Addressed by Paper

Purpose of Paper

Critical Review and Analysis

Technological Perspective

Psychological Perspective

Pedagogical Perspective

Implications for Instructional Systems

Summary of Significant Issues and Conclusions

References

Florida State University's Instructional Television Network

Abstract

Problem/Need Addressed by Project

Project Goals/Description

Media/Technology Employed

Impact

Implications for Design

Reference Notes

Abstract

HRS Telnet: A Case Study

Problem/Need Addressed by Project

Project Goals/Description

Media/Technology Employed

Impact

Implications for Design

Reference Notes

References

Related Readings